
THE 

'ETAL MIXER 



The easiest, simplest and most exact method 

of mixing iron by chemical analysis, with 

tables and ready made mixtures. 



Indispensable to Molders, Melters <s 

and Foundry Men. 



Sv ^. //'. ELLIS 



COPYRIGHT, 1919 OAKLAND, CAHF. 



THE 

mETAL MIXER 



The easiest, simplest and most exact method 

of mixing iron by chemical analysis, with 

tables and ready made mixtures. 



Indispensable to Molders, Melters 
and Foundry Men. 



2y fr. ir. ELLIS 



COPYRIGHT, 1919. OAKLAND, CALIF. 



v 



Ml^t^ -^8 1919 



A512834 



^u I 



CONTENTS 



Introduction 5 

Mixture for Medium Machinery Castings 9 

Soft Mixture for Pulleys, Short Method 12 

Four Iron Semi-Steel Mixtures for Rolls 15 

Correcting Mixtures with Ferro-Silicon or Ferro-Manganese 18 
Semi-Steel Mixture for Rings, Piston Valve Liners, Gears 
Etc., 21 

Mixture for Marine Cylinders Liners 26 

Mixing with a Certain Per Cent of Steel 29 

Figuring Three or More Elements Exact 32 

French Specifications for Semi-Steel Shells 36 

Side Lights on Mixtures 40 

Miscellaneous Mixtures 43 

Analysis of Pig Irons ". ;. 44 

Approximate Grading Numbers 44 

Approximate Analysis of Important Castings 45 

The Influence Different Elements Have Upon the Iron 46 

Percentage of Silicon for Different Castings 47 

Judging Per Cent of Silicon in Different Kinds of Scrap 48 

Decimal Fractions and Percentage 49 

Cupola Practice 54 



INTRODUCTION 



In presenting this book to molders and foundry foremen 
I do so, believing there is a real demand for a book, — 
written in plain every day foundry language that anyone 
may understand, showing a simple and easy method of mix- 
ing iron by chemical analysis. I have endeavored to explain 
every mixture in a manner so simple, that the man who has 
never mixed iron, or understands anything whatever about 
foundry work, can, with a few minutes study, make any 
kind of a mixture, from any number of different grades of 
iron, by this easy method, almost as well as the more exper- 
ienced foundry man. We do not require a knowledge of 
chemistry to be able to mix by analysis. In fact, the aver- 
age foundry man or foreman has very little use or time 
for it. But what we must know is the composition of the 
iron we are mixing, and the percentage of the diiferent 
elements it contains. The broker generally gives an approx- 
imate analysis. Drillings should be analyzed for the exact 
composition. In regard to the influence and relation the 
elements have to one another, and above all the percentage 
of the most important of these elements, castings designed 
for different kinds of work, should contain, I have endeavored 
to explain, and if followed, will give the reader a good work- 
ing knowledge of the characteristics of the different elements, 
which is a big help in making mixtures. 

Foundry iron contams several of these elements, or im- 
purities as they are sometimes called, but there are only five 
in which we are mostly interested in. They are silicon, 
phosphorus, sulphur, manganese and the carbons. Of these 
five, I think the carbons are the most important, because 
carbon is the element that gives the iron its character. 
Foundry iron contains carbon in two distinct forms, called 



graphite carbon and combined carbon. And according to 
the percentage of each of these carbons, so will the iron 
be hard or soft. Graphite, or soft carbon, is always high 
in very soft open grained iron. Combined or hard carbon 
is always high in very hard, close grained iron. In making 
mixtures for the cupola it is a more difficult proposition to 
take hold of the carbons and figure their content than it is 
silicon or some other element, so, as a rule if we wish to 
reduce or change the carbons, we generally add some low 
carbon steel scrap, or change the carbons by using high or 
low silicon in the mixture, as the case may require. In 
making mixtures for the ordinary run of machinery castings, 
we do not trouble about the carbons because we find if 
silicon is high, graphite carbon will be high also, and if 
silicon is lowered, graphite carbon will be lower, and com- 
bined carbon will be higher, and the more we lower the 
silicon the more combmed carbon we will get in our cast- 
ings. Chemists long ago proved, if we wish to regulate 
the carbons it can be done through the silicon, which at 
once proves that silicon is one of the most important, if 
not the most important element the founder has to work with. 
Not only does it influence the carbons, but the other elements 
also, to a certain extent. For we find if we get silicon 
normal for the class of work we are making, the other 
elements also will be normal, especially so, if we use the 
ordinary run of foundry irons. As the silicon can be raised 
or lowered as required, it is the first element that should be 
figured in mixing iron by chemical analysis. When iron 
contains more than 3.5 per cent silicon, it will begin to get 
hard. Not hard and strong like a low silicon close grained 
iron, but hard, short and brittle. So in making mixtures, 
we never go above 3.25 per cent silicon, and even that per- 
centage is very rarely used, except in fine stove plate, or 
work similar to it. There are special mixtures however, for 
acid proof castings, that call for a much higher percentage 



of silicon, but these are exceptional, and are not included in 
the ordinary run of foundry products. Silicon and mangan- 
ese are not affected by mineral and vegetable acids, like 
graphite carbon, sulphur and phosphorus are. So in making 
mixtures for this kind of work, the combined carbon, silicon 
and manganese should be high, especially the silicon, which 
of course will make the casting very brittle. To make such 
mixtures takes considerable experimenting, even by the 
most experienced chemist and metallurgist. In arranging 
the different mixtures I have tried to make them as progres- 
sive as possible. The few mixtures from my note books, 
I thought would give the reader an idea of what has been 
done with steel mixing. These were made when pig iron 
was very much cheaper than now, as some were made as far 
back as 1904. The analysis of different pig irons will also 
give beginners a working idea of the composition of iron. 
The few remarks on the influence the different elements have 
upon the iron will all help the student how to use, and mix 
them to accomplish a certain purpose. 

In selecting and using scraps, of course is more or less 
guess work. But, by careful study and selection, and by 
getting a determination now and then, one will soon be able 
to judge the silicon content for all practical purposes. But 
if special work is to be made to specification, such as sljells 
or other governmental work, all the scraps must be melted 
and pigged, and analysis taken of each cast. Only then can 
we say with confidence, just what is the composition of the 
scrap. 

In the mixtures showing the method of mixing three 
or more irons together, I have used a higher per cent of 
steel than I would advise to use without experience. Although 
I have made mixtures containing more than 25 per cent steel, 
still I am convinced by actual tests, that no improvement 
or benefit can be obtained by using more. This opinion 
seems to be general among other foundry men, who have had 



any experience with steel and iron mixtures. I have also 
found if using a higher per cent the best results was obtained 
when using all pig and steel scrap. Steel mixtures must be 
melted hot and handled quick when in the ladle. The few 
examples on decimals and percentage will help refresh our 
memories, and are handy to refer to while studying this 
method, as they deal directly with the work of the book. The 
last chapter deals with the cupola, which are chiefly personal 
experiences, and agrees closely with our leading foundry men. 
And if followed as near as possible together with other in- 
formation in the book, the young foundry man should have 
no trouble in handling the mixing and melting end of any 
shop, independent of the class of work being made. 

— W. W. ELLIS. 




MIXTURE FOR MEDIUM MACHINERY 
CASTINGS. 

In this mixture we will figure for silicon only, and I 
would advise the student to work over this first mixture until 
you understand it. You will then be surprised how simple it 
is. You will then have the foundation for making any kind 
of a mixture from any number of different grades of iron. 
\ mixture for medium machinery work should contain about 
2 per cent silicon, with that percentage, castings from %- 
inch in section should machine quite easy. As we lose about 
two tenths (0.2) of one per cent silicon in melting, we 
must add that much to our mixture before it goes into the 
cupola. On account of this loss we must figure our m.ixlure 
to contain 2.2 per cent silicon. To make this we will use 
pig iron and scrap enough to make a mixture of 2000 pounds. 
The pig contains 3.25 per cent silicon, and the scrap 1.75 
per cent. As we desire only 2.2 per cent, you will notice 
that I have selected one iron with a higher, and one with 
a lower per cent of silicon. We will now put the lowest 
silicon under A, the amount we desire under B, and the 
bighest silicon under C. So placing them in that order they 
stand as follows: A. B. C. 

1.75 2.20 3.25 

RULE: By subtracting A from B we get .45 remain- 
der; substracing B from C we get 1.05. We now add both 
remainders together, getting 1 .50. Taking the first remain- 
der .45 and after affixing two ciphers to it, and moving 
the decimal point tv/o places to the right, and dividing it 
by the sum of the two remainders 1 .50, we get 30, the 
percentage of the C iron to be used in the mixture. Taking 
the second remainder 1.05, and after affixing two ciphers, 
and moving the point two places to the right, dividing it 
also by 1 .50 we get the percentage of the A iron, which is 
70, — to be used in the mixture. 



A. 


B. 


C. 




.75 


2.20 


3.25 






1.75 


2.20 


Take B from C. 




.45 


1.05 


2nd Remainder 




1.05 







Example 

1 
Take A from B. 

1st Remainder 
Add both remainders 

Sum of the two 1 .50 

TABLE No. 1 

1st remainder .45 representing C iron. 
Two ciphers affixed and point moved two places and 
divided by 1.50)45.00(30% of C iron to be used. 

45.00 

TABLE No. 2 

2nd Remainder 1 .05 representing A iron. With two 
ciphers affixed and point moved two places we divide by 
1.50)105.00( 70% of A iron to be used in the mixture. 
10500 

TABLE No. 3 

Don't miss this one point of setting the different 

silicons under their proper heading. 

Always set the lowest silicon under A, what we desire 
under B and the highest under C. Then take A from B, and 
the first remainder will always represent the C iron. Then 
take B from C and the second remainder will always represent 
the A iron. As these remainders only represent the A and 
C irons, they do not tell us how much per cent of each one 
to take. To find a rate so we can figure what percentage 
of these two irons to use, we add these two remainders 
together, and after affixing tv/o ciphers to each one, we 
divide each one by the base, or sum of the two. The result 
of this division is of course the percentage of the iron we 
are to use that each remainder represent, which is clearly 
shown in tables 2 and 3. When affixing the two ciphers to 

10 



each of the remainders, be sure and move the decimal point 
two places to the right even though it does point off ciphers 
as in this example. 

We will now check off our mixture. 

According to our figures we are to use 30 per cent of 
C iron, and 70 per cent of A iron. By multiplying the 
3.25 per cent of silicon by the 30 per cent, we get .9750 
per cent, and by multiplying the 1.75 per cent by the 70 
per cent we get 1 .2250 per cent. Adding these two per- 
centages together will give us our desired percentage oT 
2.2 per cent silicon. 

Example: — Percentage of silicon in C iron 3.25 

Percentage of C iron to be used .30 



Per cent of silicon .9750 

TABLE No. 4 

Percentage of silicon in A iron 1 .75 
Percentage of A iron to be used .70 



Per cent of silicon 1 .2250 

Percentage of silicon from C iron .9750 



The required per cent amount of silicon 2.2000 

TABLE No. 5 
This method gives the percentage of silicon as well as 
the percentage of the iron. 
Example: — 

30 per cent of 2,000 lbs. = 600 lbs. of C. pig iron. 
70 per cent of 2,000 lbs. = 1400 lbs. of A scrap iron. 



. Mixture of 2000 lbs. 

TABLE No. 6 
In tables 2 and 3 the divisors and dividends has each 
two decimal places which make the quotients whole numbers, 
— see decimals. 

11 



SOFT MIXTURES FOR PULLEYS 

We will make this another two iron mixture, and figure 
for silicon only, introducing shorter method with less figuring. 
In making mixtures for pulleys, we should try and keep the 
silicon three or four points higher than we would for castings 
in our first mixture. The metal will be softer and of course 
the shrinkage will be lower. Even with this percentage, all 
pulley hubs should be stripped and cores taken out. 

Suppose we want a mixture of 1500 pounds containing 
2.4 per cent silicon in the castings. That means with the 
loss of silicon in melting our mixture must contain 2.6 per 
cent before going into the cupola. To make this mixture 
we will use some of the gates of our first mixture containing 
2.0 per cent silicon, and No. 1 Sloss pig iron containing 3.6 
per cent silicon. Putting the lowest silicon under A, our 
desired under B and the highest silicon under C. We then 
work out as in table No. 1 . 

By substracting A from B we get our first remainder .6, 
which represents the C iron to be used in the mixture. Sub- 
stracting B from C we get our second remainder, 1 .0 which rep- 
resents the A iron to be used in the mixture. After adding 
these two remainders together and getting 1 .6, we take 
the first remainder and after affixing two ciphers to it, we 
move the decimal point two places to the right, making 
60.0. We now divide the 60.0 by the sum of the two re- 
mainders 1.6; which we find goes 37J/2 times. As this first 
remainder represents the C iron, it shows we are to take 
37.5 per cent of C iron to use in our mixture. Now, if we 
are to use 37.5 per cent of C iron, it stands to reason wc 
must use 62.5 per cent of A iron, as 37.5 and 62.5 equals 
100. So that being the case, further figuring are unneces- 
sary. Example: 



12 



A. B. 



Take A from B 

1 St remainder 

Add both remainders 

Divide by 



2.0 


2.6 3.6 

2.0 2.6 Take B from C. 


;rs 


.6 1 .0 2nd remainder 
1.0 




1.6)60.00(37.5% of C iron. 
48 




120 

112 62.5 % of A iron. 




80 
80 


TABLE No. 7. 



You will notice instead of making two separate tables 
as in our first mixture, we simply take the first remainder .6 
put it to the right of the 1 .6, add two ciphers to it, and 
move the point two places, then divide it by the 1 .6. The 
result of this division completes all the figures required to get 
the percentage of the irons to be used in any mixture, so 
make yourself familiar with the first mixture, then you 
will be able to follow table 7 with ease. For table 7 is the 
form in which you will make all your mixtures in actual 
practice, except, of course, when correcting mixtures, or 
mixtures that have even number remainders, which will be 
explained in other mixtures following. 

Percentage of silicon in C iron 3.6 

Percentage of C iron to be used 37.5 



Per cent of silicon 



.3500 



13 



TABLE No. 8 

Percentage of silicon in A iron 2. 

Percentage of A iron to be used 62.5 



Per cent of silicon 1.250 

Silicon from C iron 1 .350 



The per cent amount of silicon required 2.600 

TABLE No. 9 
37.5 per cent of 1500 = 562.5 pounds of C pig iron. 
62.5 per cent of 1500 = 937.5 pounds of A gate scrap. 



Charge of 1500.0 pounds 
TABLE No. 10. 

Note: In multiplying by the rate for percentage, you 
point off two for the whole numbers, and as many decimals 
as there are in the multiplier and multipliant, which makes 
four in table 8, and three in table 9. See decimals. In 
actual practice we would only require tables 7 and 10. 
Tables 8 and 9 are merely used to prove our figures. 



14 



MIXTURE FOR A ROLL SEMI-STEEL USING FOUR 
DIFFERENT KINDS OF IRON 



In this mixture we will explain a method whereby any 
number of different kinds of iron can be mixed together. 

When making a mixture to contain several different 
brands of iron, and not being particular how much of each, 
the best way is to segregate them, putting al! the irons 
together that contain a lower silicon than we require in our 
mixture into one group, and all the irons that contain a 
higher per cent of silicon into another group. After getting 
the mean percentage of silicon from each of these groups, 
we have practically but two irons to figure on, and can be 
worked out as in table 7. Then, after we have found what 
percentage of each group we are to use, we must divide 
each percentage into as many parts as there are irons com- 
posing each group. 

Example: Suppose we wish a mixture of 4,000 pounds 
for a 20 inch dia-chilled roll, containing 0.6 per cent silicon, 
adding the usual 0.2 per cent for loss of silicon, would make 
our desired silicon 0.8 per cent before it goes into the 
cupola. To make this mixture we will use some of the 
following irons. 

Sil. Phos. Sul. Manp. T. C. 

Heavy scrap 1.50 0.40 0.08 0.60 

Salisbury pig 1.29 0.30 0.045 0.40 3.85 

Steel scrap 0.2 0.05 0.05 0.50 0.10 

Cargo fleet-pig 0.79 1.52 0.027 0.23 3.12 

TABLE No. n . 

By putting the two lowest silicons together and dividing 
them by 2. we find their mean silicon content is 0.495 per 
cent, v/hich must be put down under A. Putting the two 
highest silicons together and dividing them also by 2, we 

15 



find their mean silicon content is 1 .395 per cent, which must 
be put down under C. The desired siHcon of course must 
be put down under B. This gives us practically a two iron 
mixture, and they stand ready to be figured as in table No. 7. 

A. B. C. 

0.495 0.800 1 .395 
Take A from B .495 .80 Take B from C. 



1 St Remainder .305 .595 2nd Remainder. 

Add both .595 



Divided by .900) 30.500 ( 33-8/9% of C iron 

2700 66-1/9% of A iron 



3500 
2700 



800 

equals 8/9 



900 

TABLE No. 12. 

Table No. 12 shows we are to take 33-8/9 per cent of 
C iron. Then, of course we must take 66-1/9 per cent of 
A iron. 

As each of these percentages have to be divided into 
two equal parts, we will do away with the fractions, and 
call each one a whole number, which will save extra figuring 
and will not affect the result any. By making them v/hole 
numbers we have 34 per cent of C iron and 66 per cent 
of A iron. As the C iron is composed of heavy scrap and 
Salsbury pig, vv'e must use 1 7 per cent of each, and of 
course 33 per cent of each of steel and Cargo Fleet. In 
checking them off at these rates, we find we have a shade 
more silicon than we desire, brought about of course by 
usmg all whole numbers instead of the fractions. 

16 



Example : 

17% of 1.50% silicon in Heavy scrap, equals 0.2550% 

17% of 1.25% silicon in Salisbury scrap, equals 0.2193% 

33% of 0.20% silicon in Steel scrap, equals 0.0660% 

33% of 0.79% silicon in Cargo Fleet-pig, equals 0.2607% 



100 Total silicon equals 0.80 10%o 

Loss in melting 0.20 



0.6010% 



TABLE No. 13 



1 7% of 4000 pounds equals 680 pounds Heavy scrap. 

1 7% of 4000 pounds equals 680 pounds Salisbury pig. 

33% of 4000 pounds equals 1320 pounds Steel scrap. 

33% of 4000 pounds equals 1320 pounds Cargo Fleet-pig. 

Charge of 4000 pounds 
TABLE No. 14 

To multiply one percentage by another percentage, see 
jercentage. 

In shop practice when this method is understood, we 
A'ould require only tables 12 and 14, saving the figuring of 
able 13, which we know would be correct. 

The other elements can be figured the same way as 
silicon. The manganese which would be low for a casting 
jf this kind, could be corrected with ferro-manganese, as 
explained in following mixtures. 



17 



METHOD FOR CORRECTING MIXTURES WITH FERRO- 
SILICON OR FERRO-MANGANESE. 



This method is useful when we wish to add more silicon 
or manganese, as the case may be, to a mixture already 
figured. 

We wish to make a mixture of 2000 pounds for medium 
floor work containing 2.2 per cent silicon. We have 1000 
pounds of foundry scrap which we know contains 2 per cent 
silicon and 1 000 pounds of heavy scrap containing 1 .5 per 
cent silicon. As these two lots of iron are the amount we 
require in our mixture, we will see how much silicon they 
will bring into it. 50 per cent of 2 per cent silicon in 
foundry scrap gives us 1.0 per cent, and 50% of 1.5% silicon 
in heavy scrap gives us 0.75% more, making a totoal of 1.75 
per cent silicon, leaving 0.45 per cent more to be 
supplied by the ferro-silicon to make our mixture contain 2.2 
per cent. This 0.45 per cent is what we want, and must go 
down under B. The ferro-silicon containing 80 per cent 
silicon must be put down under C, and as we are working 
with one iron only, we will put a cipher under A. Setting 
them down in that order, they stand ready to be figured as 
in table 7. 



18 



Example: 







Take A from B 

1st Remainder 
Add both 

Divided by 



B. 

.45 




c. 

80.00 

.45 Take B from C. 



.45 
79.55 



79.55 2nd Remainder. 



80.)45.0000(.5625% of C Per. sil. 
400 



500 
480 

200 
160 

400 
400 
TABLE No. 15 

2000 Pounds 
00.5625 



1.250000 Pounds 
TABLE No. 16 

11.25 Pounds 
.80 



20)9.0000(.45% 
80 



100 
100 

TABLE No. 1 7 



19 



80 
00.5625 

. .450000% of silicon from Ferro Silicon 
1 .75 % of silicon from scrap iron 



2.20 Total silicon. 

TABLE No. 18 

Table 15 shows we are to add 0.5625 per cent of ferro 
silicon to the mixture. To find the amount of ferro-silicon 
in pounds we are to use, we will multiply the 2000 pounds of 
iron by .5625% making it 11.25 lbs. Multiply 11.25 pounds 
by the per cent of silicon it contains (which is 80,) and 
dividing the result by 20, the number of hundred pounds in 
the mixture will give us our required silicon 0.45 per cent. 
Or, multiply the 80 per cent ferro-silicon by the percentage 
we are to take, .5625, will also give us our required 0.45 
per cent. See tables 16, 17 and 18 above. I have used 
80 per cent ferro-silicon, it serves our purpose as well as 
50% or any other per cent. 



20 



THREE IRON SEMI-STEEL MIXTURES WITH APPROXI- 
MATE FIGURING OF ALL THE ELEMENTS. 



This mixture if melted hot and under proper conditions 
would be suitable for marine piston rings, piston valve liners, 
cut and cast gears, etc. Although we are using high steel in 
this mixture it is advisable not to attempt high steel mixtures 
without previous experience. In making a mixture of this 
kind, there are always two elements we are sure of getting 
exact. These are silicon and manganese, which will be 
proved in this mixture. The other elements will be influenced 
by these two, and can be made normal for the mixture, es- 
pecially so, if we select irons suitable for the work in hand. 

Keep the sulphur and phosphorus low. If the sulphur 
is high, raise the manganese a point or two. We will make 
a mixture of 2000 pounds to contain 

Silicon Phos. Sulphur Mang. Total Carbon 

1.8% 0.45% 0.07% 0.75% 

From the following irons: 

Buckeye 3.6% 0.55% 0.016% 0.50% 3.50% 

Scrap iron 11 0.60 0.070 0.45 3.25 

Scrap steel 0.2 0.05 0.050 0.50 0.08 

TABLE No. 19. 

As we are not particular what per cent of each iron 
we use, the best way is to put the two lowest silicon's 
together, and get their mean percentage. In this case we 
will put scrap iron and scrap steel together. So adding 2.2 
and 0.2 together making 2.4 per cent silicon, and dividing 
by 2. will give us their mean per cent, 1 .2. This gives 
us now, practically, but two irons to figure on. Putting 
them under their proper headings they stand ready to be 
figured as in table 7. Adding 0.2 for loss of silicon in 
melting will make our desired 2.0%. 

21 





A. 


B. C. 




1.2 


2.0 3.6 


Take A from B 




1.2 2.0 


1 St remainder 




.8 1.6 




TABLE No. 20 



Take B from C. 



1 .6 2nd remainder 



When one remainder is just twice as much as the other, 
it shows we are to take 33/? per cent of the C iron, and 
66^3 per cent of the A, and no more figuring are required. 
If both remainders should come the same it would mean 50 
per cent of each A and C, and if one remainder should 
happen to come three times as much as the other, we would 
have to take 75 per cent of one, and 25 per cent of the 
other. In this case we are to take 33 >^ per cent of C and 
66-/3 per cent of A iron. As the A iron is composed of scrap 
iron and scrap steel, it means we are to use 33V3 per cent of 
each pig iron, scrap iron and steel. In checking off at these 
percentages we get the following results: 



Example — 



Pig iron 
Scrap iron 
Scrap steel 

A— 



Pig iron 
Scrap iron 
Scrap steel 



Silicon. 

331/3% of 3.6% silicon equals 1 .200 % 

331/3% of 2.2% silicon equals 0.733/ % 

331/3% of 0.2% silicon equals 0.0662/^% 



Total silicon 
Loss in melting equals 

Silicon in casting 
Phosphorus. 
33/3% of 0.55% phos., equals 
33/3% of 0.60% phos., equals 
33/3% of 0.05% phos., equals 



2.000 
0.2 



% 
% 



Phosphorus does not lose or gain in melting 

22 



1.8 % 

0.1833/ % 

0.2000 

0.01662/^ 

.4000 % 



B — Sulphur. 

Pig iron 33^37^ of 0.016% sulp., equals 0.00533/3% 

Scrap iron 33^3% of 0.07 % sulp., equals 0.02330/ 

Scrap steel 33/3% of 0.05 % sulp., equals 0.0166 V^ 

Gain in melting equals .03 

C— Manganese. .07524|/4% 

Pig iron 33]/3% of 0.50% mang., equals 0.1662/^% 

Scrap iron 33/3% of 0.45 % mang., equals 0.150 

Scrap steel 33^% of 0.50% mang., equals 0.1 66^/^ 



Loss in melting, equals 



Manganese from 80% ferro-mang., equals 



D — Total Carbon. 

Pig iron 33j/3% of 3.50% carbon, equals 

Scrap iron 33^% of 3.25% carbon, equals 

Scrap steel 33^3% of 0.08% carbon, equals 

E — Total carbon 

Pig iron 331/3% of 2000 lbs., equals 

Scrap iron 33!/^% of 2000 lbs., equals 

Scrap steel 33^%c of 2000 lbs., equals 



0.483/3 

0.100 

0.383 
0.367 

0.750 % 

1.16662/S%, 

1.07431/3 
0.02662/^ 

^26762/^% 

6662/^ lbs. 
6662/i lbs. 
6662/^ lbs. 

2000 lbs. 



TABLE No. 21. 

This table shows that all the elements are nearly as we 
want them, except the manganese, which of course can be 
corrected to what we require with ferro-manganese. The 

23 



sulphur is slightly higher, but the high manganese will be 
liable to offset that much. As we desire 0.75 per cent 
manganese in our mixture and our irons have given us only 
0.383 per cent, it is evident we must get 0.367 per cent 
from the ferro-manganese. 

To find the number of pounds of ferro-manganese to 
use, so as to get this 0.367 per cent manganese in the mix- 
ture, we will set the 80 per cent under C, the desired 0.367 
under B, and figure out as in table 15 on correcting mix- 
tures or, using a shorter method which can always be done 
when figuring a one iron mixture like this, we will simply affix 
two ciphers to B, move the point two places to the right, 
then divide it by C. Example: — 

TABLE No. 22. TABLE No. 23 

A. B. C. 80 

0. .367 .80 -45^8 



80)36.700(.457/8% 7q 

320 4Q0 

400 .3670% 



_=7/g 



70 
80 

TABLE No. 24 

2000 pounds 

.457/8 



1750 
10000 
8000 

9.1750 pounds 

24 



If you will look over Table 22, you will see we have 
accomplished the same results as we did in table 15, with 
:onsiderable less figuring. The figures show we are to use 
45%% *^f ferro-manganese. Multiplying 80 per cent man- 
ganese by the .45%%, gives us our required 0.367%, as in 
:able 23, and to get the number of pounds of fero-manganese 
we are to use to get this percentage of manganese, we mul- 
tiply the full charge of 2000 pounds by the .45%%, which 
shows we are to use, 9.175 pounds of ferro-manganese as in 
table 24. By multiplying the 9.175 pounds by the 80%, 
A'ill give us the exact number of pounds of manganese, 
/ve will get from the fero-manganese which is 7.34 pounds. 
Now divide this 7.34 by 20, the number of 100 pounds in 
he mixture, will again give us our required per cent, 0.367 
)f manganese, as in table 25. 

Example: — 

9.175 
80 
20) 7.34000 (.367% manganese. 



60 



134 
120 

140 
140 



TABLE No. 25 

Vlanganese from pig iron and scrap, equals 0.383% 

Vlanganese from 80% Ferro-Manganese, equals 0.367% 



Vlanganese in mixture 0.750% 

In shop practice the per cent of D and F in table No. 
Zl, and tables 22 and 24 is all we need figure. The other 
:ables are worked merely to prove the mixture. 

25 



MIXTURE FOR LARGE CYLINDER LINERS, ETC. 

Show Methods, if a Certain Per Cent of 

Some of the Irons Are to be Used 



We will make a mixture of 2000 pounds to contain 1 .0 
per cent silicon. We must use 500 pounds of steel scrap 
containing 0.2 per cent silicon, and 500 pounds of liner 
scrap containing 1 .0 per cent silicon. We have besides some 
scrap containing 1.6 per cent silicon, and pig iron containing 
2.2 per cent silicon. By adding the 0.2 per cent silicon to 
make up for loss in melting, our mixture will have to con- 
tain 1 .2 per cent silicon. The first thing to do when making 
a mixture with a given per cent of some of the irons is to 
find how many pounds of silicon the mixture must contain. 
Here we want 2000 pounds to contain 1 .2 per cent silicon, 
multiplying the 2000 by the 1 .2 per cent gives us 24 pounds 
of silicon. This is the amount we must get in this mixture. 
The next is to find how much the given irons will contribute 
to the 24 pounds, multiplying 500 pounds of steel by 0.2 
per cent will give us 1 pound of silicon. The 500 pounds of 
liner scrap containing 1 .0 per cent will contribute 5 pounds 
more. This makes 6 pounds, leaving 1 8 pounds more for the 
other 1000 pounds of iron to bring in. Now, if we had 
some 1.8 per cent silicon iron, 1000 pounds of that would 
just make our mixture complete, by giving us the 18 pounds 
of silicon we require. And of course no more mixing would 
be necessary, but we have only 1 .6 per cent scrap, and the 
2.2 per cent pig iron. So we must find how much of each of 
these we must use to complete the mixture. As we want 
1000 pounds more iron, and 18 pounds of it must be silicon, 
that means it must contain 1 .8 per cent silicon, which of 
course is our desired silicon, and must be put under B, set- 
ting them down under their proper headings, they stand ready 
to be figured as in table 1. Example: — 

26 



A. 
1.6 

Tl B 


B. 

1.8 
1.6 


26, 


C. 

2.2 

1 .8 Take B from C. 


Remainder .2 
TABLE No. 


.4 2nd Remaindei 



Take A f 

IstR 



As we have shown in previous mixtures, when one 
remainder is as much again as the other, it means we are 
to take 33|/3% of the iron the smallest remainder represents, 
(which is C), and 66^% of the iron that the largest rep- 
resents — which is A. As we only want 1000 pounds more 
iron to complete the mixture this means we are 
to take 333|/3 pounds of pig iron, 666^ pounds of 
scrap iron. By taking the 500 pounds of steel, 500 pounds 
of liner scrap, 333J/3 pounds of pig iron, 666^ pounds 
of scrap iron, and multiply each one by the per cent of 
silicon it contains, will give us the 24 pounds of silicon we 
require in the mixture. Example: — 

Steel 500 pounds x 0.2% equals 1 lb. silicon 

Liner scrap 500 pounds x 1 .0% equals 5 lb. silicon 

Pig iron 333J/3 pounds x 2.2% equals 7!/3 lb. silicon 

Scrap 666^/3 pounds x 1 .6% equals 10^^ lb. silicon 



20)24.0(1.2% sil. 
20 



40 
40 



TABLE No. 27. 



By dividing the 24 pounds by the number of 100 pounds 
in the mixture, (which is 20), gives us our required 1.2 per 
cent silicon. Here is another way to check it off, but as 
we were only figuring for half the mixture in table 26, we 
must take only half of each percentage thus obtained, mak- 

27 



ing it 162/^% of pig, or "C" iron, and 33^3% of the scrap, 
or "A" iron. Example: — 

Steel 25% of 0.2% silicon equals 0.050% silicon 

Liner scrap 25% of 1.0% silicon equals 0.250% silicon 
Pig iron \(iY3% of 2.2% silicon equals 0.3662/^ silicon 
Scrap 33^/3% of 1.6% silicon equals 0.533% silicon 



.200 %c silicon 



TABLE No. 28. 



By using this same percentage, the other elements if 
known, can be figured as in table No. 21. And the Man- 
ganese corrected as in tables 22, 23 and 24. 

Any number of different grades of iron can be mixed 
this way. Always leaving two irons, — ^one with lower and 
one with a higher silicon content than we desire to corect 
the mixture with. 



28 



WETHOD OF FIGURING WHEN A CERTAIN PER CENT 
OF STEEL MUST BE USED. 



This mixture would be suitable for heavy gas and 
lydraulic cylinders and other castings that require btrength 
md close grained enough to stand water pressure. We wish 
I 25 per cent steel mixture of 2000 lbs., to contain 1 .6 per 
:ent silicon, and 0.75 per cent manganese. We will use 12 
)er cent manganese scrap steel to corect the manganese 
vith, we will use the following irons: 

Silicon Phos. Sulp. Mang. 

'ig iron 3.007^ 0.5% 0.016% 0.5% 

5crap iron 1.8 0.5 0.08 0.4 

scrap steel 0.0 0.02 0.05 0.5 

TABLE No. 29 
By adding 0.2 per cent silicon, and 0.1 per cent man- 
ganese for loss while melting, will make our required silicon 
1 .8 per cent, and the manganese 0.85 per cent. When mak- 
ng a mixture of this kind, I figure to get all the silicon from 
he iron, because of the small amount of silicon in the steel. 
3n account of having to get all the silicon from the 1500 
jounds of iron, that of course changes our desired silicon 
or the present, because the 1 500 pounds of iron will have 
:o carry enough silicon to give 1 .8 per cent to the full 
:harge of 2000 pounds of both iron and steel. To get this 
lew required per cent of silicon, we will divide the percent- 
age of silicon required in the whole charge, by the per cent 
jf the iron used, — which is 75 per cent. Please take note 
jf this rule. Example: — 

TABLE No. 30 TABLE No. 31 



.75)1.800(2.4% 



A. B. C. 



150 1.8 2.4 3.0 

1.8 2.4 

300 

300 .6 .6 

29 



Table No. 30 shows our new required silicon must be 
2.4 per cent, which means we are take enough of the pig 
iron and scrap to give us that amount and, according to 
table 31 we must use 50 per cent of each. As we only 
require 1500, that means we are to take 750 pounds of 
each A and C, together with the 500 pounds of steel and 
no more figuring is required, — except of course for the man- 
ganese. Example: — 

As we have 25 per cent steel, the other 75 per cent 
must be divided between A and C. 

Steel 25% of 0.0% silicon equals 0.0 % silicon 

Pig 37.5% of 3.0% silicon equals 1.125% silicon 

Scrap 37.5% of 1.8% silicon equals 0.675% silicon 



1.800% silicon 
TABLE No. 32. 

Table 32 shows our figures are correct and is a much 
shorter method than table 27. We will now figure the man- 
ganese.^ Taking the same percentage as in table 32 we will 
see how much manganese the irons figured have already 
brought into the mixture. Example: — 
Steel 25% of 0.5% equals 0.125 % manganese 

Pig 37.5% of 0.5% equals 0.1875% manganese 

Scrap 37.5% of 0.4% equals 0.150 % manganese 



0.4625% 
TABLE No. 33. 

Table 33 shows our mixture already has 0.4625 per cent 
manganese. As we desire 0.85 per cent we must get the 
other 0.3875 per cent from the 12 per cent manganese steel 
scrap. This 0.3875 per cent of course is what we desire, 
and must be put down under B. The 12 per cent man- 
ganese under C, and figured as in table 22. Example: — 

By using the figure 3 in table 34, we save a lot of 
figures and it does not affect the result. 

30 



A. 


B. C. 


0. 


.3875 12 




12)38.7500(3.23% 
36 




27 
24 




35 
36 



TABLE No. 34. 

Table 34 shows we are to take 3.23 per cent of C. 
To find how much steel scrap we are to use, we will multiply 
the full charge of 2000 pounds by 3.23 per cent, which 
gives us 64.6 pounds. Multiplying the 64.6 pounds by the 
per cent of manganese it contains, which is 12, — gives us 
the exact amount of manganese this 64.6 pounds adds, — 
which is 7.752 pounds. This again divided by 20, the 
number of 100 pounds in the mixture, will give us our 
required per cent of manganese. Multiplying the 12 by 
3.23 per cent, will also give us our required per cent of 
manganese. Example: — 

2000 20)7.7520 

03.23 



64.6000 lbs. 



.3876% man. 



64.6 12 

.12 03.23 



7.7752 lbs. .3876% 

Manganese from mixture 0.4625 

Manganese from 12% steel 0.3876 

Total manganese equals 0.8501% 
31 



TABLE No. 35 

Using the figure 3 in table 34, altered the result but 
slightly, and saved a lot of figures. To use this 64.6 lbs. 
of 12 per cent manganese steel, we would take out that 
amount from the 500 pounds of the common steel scrap. 



MuTHOD OF FIGURING THREE OR MORE ELEMENTS 
EXACT IN THE SAME MIXTURE 

We have shown in previous mixtures how to get the 
exact percentage of both silicon and manganese in the same 
mixture. The silicon is figured correct, and the manganese 
is corrected by the use of ferro-manganese. But now, sup- 
pose we have to get another element exact, — say phosphorus 
— to specification? 

The best way to do it is to make two mixtures, both 
to contain the same per cent of silicon we desire in the final 
mixture, but one mixture to contain a lower and the other 
to contain a higher per cent of phosphorus than we desire in 
our final mixture. We then take the phosphorus contained 
in each of these two mixtures to figure the exact percentage 
of phosphorus we desire in our final mixture. So you see, 
when we have two mixtures, each containing the same per 
cent of silicon, no matter how much we use of each one 
to get our desired per cent of phosphorus in the final, mix- 
ture, the silicon will not be changed. Example: — 

We wish to make a mixture of 2000 pounds to contain 
2.3 per cent silicon, 0.65 per cent phosphorus, and 0.75 per 
cent manganese. As we lose from 0.10 to 0.15 per cent 
in melting, we will make our mixture to contain 0.9 per 
cent manganese. 



Silicon 


Phosphorus 


Sulphur 


Manganese 


2.00% 
3.00% 

2.25% 

2.75% 


0.4% 
0.7% 
0.6% 
0.9% 


0.04% 
0.02% 
0.03% 
0.01% 


0.60% 
0.75% 
0.65% 
1.00% 



32 



TABLE No. 37. 

When mixing for Phosphorus no allowance is made for 
gain or loss in melting. For silicon we will add the 0.2 per 
cent, making our desired silicon for the mixture 2.5 per cent. 

We will make our first mixture from the first two irons, 
and our second mixture from the next two. You will notice 
we have tried to select two irons that will give us a lower 
and two that will give us a higher per cent of phosphorus 
than we want in our final mixture. 

Setting the first two irons under their proper heading 
they stand re^dy to be figured. 

First Mixture Second Mixture 

Silicon Silicon 

A. B. C. A. B. C. 

2.0 2.5 3.0 2.25 2.50 2.75 

2.0 2.5 2.25 2.50 



.5 .5 .25 .25 

TABLE No. 38. 

In both of these mixtures we get even remainders, which 
shows we are to take 50 per cent of all the irons. 

In our first mixture we get the lowest phosphorus 0.55 
per cent, as 50 per cent of 0.4 per cent equals 0.20 per 
cent and 50 per cent of 0.7 per cent equals 0.35 per cent, 
adding these two together we get 0.55 per cent phosphorus, 
which is lower then we desire in the final mixture, but we 
get our desired silicon 2.5 per cent. 

In the second mixture taking 50 per cent of 0.6 per cent 
phosphorus equals 0.3 per cent and 50 per cent of 0.9 per 
cent equals 0.45 per cent. Adding these together we get 0.75 
per cent phosphorus which is higher than we require in the 
final mixture. But, we also have the same silicon (2.5 per 
cent) in both mixtures. Now we have two mixtures, both 
containing the same per cent silicon, but one has a higher 
and the other has a lower per cent of phosphorus than we 

33 



want in the final mixture. So we will take these two per 
cents of phosphorus with our desired per cent and set them 
under their proper heading and figure as in table No. 1 . 
Example : — 

A. B. C. Phosphorus 

.55 .65 .75 

.55 .65 



.10 .10 

TABLE No. 39 
As both remainders are the same again, it shows we 
are to take 50 per cent of each mixture, which will give 
us our required per cent of phosphorus and the required per 
cent of silicon in the final mixture. 

As we are to take 50 per cent of each of the first mix- 
tures, and each mixture contains two irons, it is apparent 
that we are to take 25 per cent of each iron. Example: 
25% of 2.00% silicon equals 0.50 % 

25% of 3.00% silicon equals 0.75 % 

25% of 2.25% silicon equals 0.5625% 

25% of 2.75% silicon equals 0.6875% 



2.5000% 
)ilicon loss in melting 0.2 % 



Silicon in castings 2.3 % 

25% of 0.4% phosphorus equals 0.100% 

25% of 0.7% phosphorus equals 0.175% 

25% of 0.6% phosphorus equals 0.150% 

25% of 0.9% phosphorus equals 0.225% 



Total phosphorus 0.650% 

25% of 0.6 % Manganese equals 0.150 % 

25% of 0.75% Manganese equals 0.1875% 

25% of 0.65% Manganese equals 0.1625% 

25% of 1.00% Manganese equals 0.25 % 



34 



0.7500% 



TABLE No. 40 
Our mixture gives us 0.75 per cent Manganese, leaving 
0.15 per cent for the fero-manganese to bring in. As this 
0.15 per cent is what we require, we will set it under B. 
The 80 per cent ferro-manganese under C and figure as in 
tables 22, 23, 24 and 25. 

A. B. C. 
0.15 80 
Affix two ciphers to B, move the decimal point two 
places to the right and divide by .80. Example: — 

80) 15. 0000 (.1875% of C. Ferro-Manganese. 
80 



700 
640 



600 
560 

400 
400 

2000 lbs. 80 

.001875 .001875 



3.750000 lbs. Ferro-Mang. . 1 50000% 

TABLE No. 41 
Our figures show we are to take 00.1875 per cent of 
C ferro-manganese, by multiplying the 80 per cent ferro- 
manganese, by the 00.1875 per cent will give us our required 
manganese. And by multiplying the 2000 lb. charge by the 
percentage of ferro-manganese 00.1875 we are to use, will 
give us the amount of fero-manganese in pounds we 
are to use. 

Manganese from mixture equals 0.75% 

Manganese from ferro-man. equals 0.15% 

090^ 
Loss in melting < 0.15 

Total manganese equals 0.75% 

■35 



FRENCH SPECIFICATIONS FOR SHELLS OF 122 TO 155 
MILLIMETERS CALIBER TO BE CAST IN SAND 

By Edgar Alien Custer in "The Foundry" 

Silicon Phos. Sulphur Mang. C. Carb. G.Carb. 

1.2% 0.15% 0.08% 0.70% 0.70% 2.40% 

The above analysis are for dry sand molds, if cast in 
green sand, the silicon should be about 1 .35 per cent. The 
total carbon and silicon must not exceed 4.7 per cent. If 
this limit is exceeded, the iron will lack toughness, at least 
20 per cent of the total carbon must be combined to produce 
proper fragmentation. The percentage of dust increases as 
the combined carbon decreases. The charge should be as 
follows: Pig iron 40 per cent, scrap 40 per cent and 
steel 20 per cent. The term scrap is used to denote scrap 
melted, pigged and charged according to analysis. All the 
foundries in France engaged in this work have been mobi- 
lized on a common basis, and are using precisely the same 
methods of selection, analysis and general foundry procedure. 
This has not been done without enormous losses and vex- 
atious delays. There have been many cases where the 
loss of a total heat has been reported, and the loss of 40 
per cent was not uncommon in the first stages. Team work, 
scientific methods and keeping everlastingly at it, have 
brought results. Today, September 1917, the output has 
reached staggering proportions, over 1 ,000,000 rounds per 
day are being made. 

This must certainly be interesting to every metal mixer, 
and should have a tendency to induce him to try his hand 
at making mixtures for shells, so as to be prepared, to some 
extent, for any emergency. 

We will make a mixture as near as possible to the 
French specifications, from some Iron Mountain pig iron 
which I recently had analyzed, and some scrap we will 
presume contains the following analysis after it has been 
melted and pigged. 

36 



Sil. Phos. Sul. Mang. C. C. G. C. 

Iron Mountain 1.4% 0.14 0.011 1.22 0.60 2.70 

Selected scrap 2.0 0.40 0.080 0.55 0.40 3.00 

Steel scrap 0.2 0.01 0.040 0.50 0.10 

TABLE No. 42 

In making this mixture we will use the silicon in the 
steel, although as a rule I leave it out when making a 
mixture to contain a certain percentage of steel. According 
to the specifications our mixture must contain 1 .2 per cent 
silicon, adding 0.2 per cent for loss in melting, will make 
our desired silicon 1 .4 per cent. As we are to use 20 per 
cent steel, we will get 0.04 per cent from it, leaving 1 .36 
per cent for the pig iron and scrap to bring into the mixture. 
Now, as we only want 80 per cent more iron, and this 80 
per cent will have to carry enough silicon to give us 1 .36 
per cent for the whole mixture of 2000 pounds, that means 
we are to find a new temporary per cent of silicon to wor"k 
with. So by using the same rule as in table 30 — that is by 
dividing the actual per cent of silicon desired by the per- 
centage of iron used in the mixture, which in this case is 
80 per cent, we get the new per cent of silicon, 1.7 to 
work with, — see the point. We must get 1 .7 per cent 
silicon in 80 per cent of the mixture to give us 1.36 per 
cent more silicon to the whole mixture. Example: — 

TABLE No. 43. TABLE No. 44 

.80)1.360(1.7% silicon. A. B. C. 
80 1.4 1.7 2.0 
1.4 1.7 



560 

560 3 .3 

The result of table 44 shows we are to use the same 
percentage of each pig iron and scrap, which in this case 
is 40 per cent, with 20 per cent of steel. So figuring all 
the elements on that basis, we will see how near our mix- 
ture is to the specifications. Example: — 

37 



Iron Mountain 40% of 1.4% silicon equals 0.560% 

Selected scrap 40% of 2.0% silicon equals 0.800% 

Steel scrap 20% of 0.2% silicon equals 0.040% 





Loss in melting 
Silicon in mixture 


1.400% 
0.2 % 




1.2 % 




Phosphorus. 




Iron Mountain 
Selected scrap 
Steel scrap 


40% of 0.14% phosphorus equals 
40% of 0.40% phosphorus equals 
20% of 0.01% phosphorus equals 


0.056% 
0.160% 
0.002% 




Phosphorus in mixture 


0.218% 




Sulphur. 




Iron Mountain 
Selected scrap 
Steel scrap 


40% of 0.011% sulphur equals 
40% of 0.080%, sulphur equals 
20% of 0.040% sulphur equals 


0.0044% 
0.0320% 
0.0080% 




0.0444% 




Gain in melting 


0.0350% 



Sulphur in mixture 
Manganese. 



0.0794% 



Iron Mountain 40% of 1.22% manganese equals 0.488% 
Selected scrap 40% of 0.55% manganese equals 0.220% 
Steel scrap 20% of 0.50% manganese equals 0.100% 



Loss in Melting 
Manganese in mixture 



0.808% 
0.100% 

0.708% 



38 



Iron Mountain 
Selected scrap 
Steel scrap 



Iron Mountain 
Selected scrap 
Steel scrap 



Combined Carbon 

40% of 0.6% C. C. equals 
40% of 0.4% C. C. equals 
20% of 0.1% C. C. equals 



0.240% 
0.160% 
0.020% 

0.420%, 



Graphite Carbon 

40% of 2.7% G. C. equals i.yjoyc 

40% of 3.0% G. C. equals 1.20% 

20% of 0.0% G. C. equals 0.00% 



2.28% 



TABLE No. 45. 



These tables show that all the elements are very nearly 
what the specifications call for. Even though phosphorus is 
a little higher here, there is not the least doubt it would be 
lower in actual practice, even from this mixture. If is was 
not, we would use two grades of pig iron, and melt and 
pig two different grades of scrap, and get our phosphorus 
exact, by the same method as in table 38 and 39. The 
carbons we cannot tell very much about till after analysis 
has been made from the mixture, because it is a semi-steel 
mixture. But both carbons will be well within specifications, 
which says the combined should be at least 20 per cent 
of the total carbon. As this mixture shows over 15 per 
cent, it is bound to be higher in the casting on account 
of the low silicon, and high steel in the mixture. Successful 
mixtures of this kind are not accomplished with one trial. 
And like the French foundrymen, only sticking everlastingly 
at it, would we accomplish the desired results. 



39 



SIDE LIGHTS ON MIXTURES 

In making some mixtures you will find when dividing 
your first remainder, that to get the exact result, you would 
be compelled to carry it out to several decimal places. Now, 
if it will not finish with one decimal place, just raise the 
last decimal or figure in the quotient, one more. Although 
the divisor will not go that many times, still it will save 
a lot of figures, and will not affect the result any. But, 
be sure and do this with the first remainder only, then you 
will always have the full percentage of the element you are 
figuring for. Example: — 

Suppose we wish a mixture of 1500 pounds to contain 
2.2 per cent silicon. We will make it from 1.8 per cent 
silicon scrap, and 50 per cent ferro-silicon. 

TABLE No. 46 

A. B. C. 

1.8 2.2 50.0 

1.8 2.2 



.4 
47.8 



47.8 



48.2) 40.000 ( .83% of C iron 
3856 99.17% of A iron 



1440 
1446 
As there are two more decimal places in the dividend 
than in the divisor, we point off two decimal places in the 
quotient making it .83 hundredths per cent of C iron to be 
used, and 99.17 per cent of A iron to be used. 



A iron 1.8% silicon 

Take 99.1 7% of A iron 

1.78506% silicon 
.4150 

2.20006% silicon 



C iron 
Take 



50% silicon 
.0083% of C iron 

.4150% silicon 



40 



You will notice, by using the figure 3 in table 46 did 
not make any material difference to the result. But saved 
carrying the quotient to several decimal places. 

We will try another from 3.25 per cent pig iron, instead 
of ferro-silicon. 

A. B. C. 

1.8 2.2 3.25 

1.8 2.2 



.4 
.05 



.05 



.45)40.00(28% of C iron. 
290 72% of A iron. 



1100 
1160 



A iron 
Take 



TABLE No. 47. 



1 .8% silicon 
72% of A iron 

1.296 



C iron 
Take 



3.25% silicon 
28% of C iron 



.9100 
.296 



2.2060%r silicon 



Even by having too much by 60 in table 47 only added 
6 thousandths of one per cent to the silicon, but saved quite 
a lot of figures. 

By taking advantage of this idea when you are dividing 
your first remainder, if the figures are inclined to run to 
several decimal places, you will always get the full percent- 
age of silicon, or any other element you may be figuring 
for. Table 46 says we are to take. .83 hundredths of one 
per cent of the C iron and 99.17 per cent of A iron. 

41 



Example : — 
Charge 1500 pounds 

00.83% of C iron 



1 500 pounds 
99.17% of A iron 



4500 
12000 



1487.5500 lbs. of A iron 
12.4500 



12.4500 lbs. of C iron 



1500.0000 pounds 



Table 47 says we are to take 28 per cent of C iron and 
72 per cent of A iron. Example: — 



Charge 



1500 pounds 
.28% of C iron 



12000 
3000 



420.00 lbs. C of iron 



1500 pounds 
.72% of A iron 



3000 
10500 



1080.00 lbs. A iron 
420.00 



1500.00 pounds. 



42 



MISCELLANEOUS MIXTURES 



These mixtures are taken from my note books and was 
cast several years ago from the following irons. The cast- 
ings answered their purpose and finished up clean. You 
will notice the steel mixtures are made from irons low in 
sulphur and phosphorus with manganese from 0.75 per 
cent up. 

Piston Valve Liners 
70% Carron No. 1 ; Tranverse 2800 per sq. inch. 
30% steel scrap; Silicon 1.6 per cent in casting. 

Hammer Block 
60%. Foundry scrap; Tranverse 3600. 
40% Steel scrap; Silicon 1.16 per cent. 

Stamp Heads 

68% Shop scrap; Tranverse 3900. 
32% Steel scrap; Silicon 1.09 per cent. 

V Gear 8' 6" Dia. 9" Face, Hub Split. 
74% cyl. Niagara; Silicon 1.2 per cent. 
26% Steel scrap. 

Large Marine Cylinder. Net Weight 34,020 lbs. 
30% Gun iron; Silicon 1.7 per cent in casting. 
30% Cyl. Niagara. 
30% Shop scrap. 
10% Carron No. 1 . 

McCully Crusher No. 7 
85% Texada No. 2; Test piece Chilled 2% deep. 
15% Steel scrap; Silicon 0.85 per cent. 

90-inch Snap and Bull Rings 
67% Carron No. I ; Silicon 1 .6 per cent in casting. 
33% Steel scrap. 

43 



Two Marine Cyl-Liners, 6927 and 7134 lbs. Net 

56.25% Gun iron; Silicon estimated 1.2%. 

25.00% Carron; 1st liner cast 1.07%. 

18.75% Steel scrap; 2nd liner cast 0.97% silicon. 



16.000 pounds. 














Good For Strong 


Castings 


and S( 


imi-St( 


2el 




Brand — 


Sil. Phos 


. Sul. 


Mang. 


C.C. 


F.C. 


G.C. 


Carron 


2.8 0.50 


0.035 


1.45 




3.64 




Texada No. 2 


1.25 0.30 


0.025 


0.90 








Cyl. Niagara 


1 .80 0.50 


0.044 


0.75 








Car Wheels 


0.70 0.40 


0.16 


0.50 


0.9 




2.90 


Gun iron 


i.25 0.31 


0.070 


0.60 








Iron Mountain 


1.40 0.14 


0.011 


1.22 


0.6 




2.70 


Irondale 


2.30 0.16 


0.035 


1.10 








Niagara No. 2 


2.20 0.40 


0.04 


0.60 




3.58 




Muirkirk 


2.21 0.28 


0.031 


2.22 


0.55 




3.01 




Good for 


Soft Iron Work 








Sloss No. 1 


3.60 0.65 


0.03 


0.45 








Crown No. 1 


3.25 0.71 


0.022 


0.50 








Clifton No. 1 


3.50 0.50 


0.015 


1.40 


0.3 




3.30 


Mississippi 


3.34 0.294 0.022 


0.90 









Grading numbers will correspond closely to the follow- 
ing percentages of silicon and sulphur. 

No. I Pig No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. 

Silicon 2.75 to 3.50% 2.25 to 2.75 2.00 to 2.25 1.75 to 2.00 
Sulphur 0.02 to 0.04% 0.01 to 0.03 0.0 1 to 0.03 0.01 to 0.03 

No. 5. No. 6. No. 7. No. 8. 

Silicon 1 .50 to 1 .75% 1 .25 to 1 .50 1 .00 to 1 .25 0.75 to 1 .00 
Sulphur 0.02 to 0.04% 0.02 to 0.04 0.03 to 0.04 0.03 to 0.05 

The following analysis of a few of the most important 
castings, will give the young student some idea to work on 
while making mixtures. 

44 



If from five to ten per cent of steel is mixed in these 

mixtures, it will strengthen and improve the castings for 
this class of work. 

Silicon Phos. Sulp. Mang. 



Hydraulic Cylinders 


1.5 


.40 


.08 


.8 


Amonia Cylinders 


1.6 


.60 


.09 


.7 


Air Cylinders 


1.3 


.45 


.09 


.8 


Steam Cylinders, Heavy 


1.6 


.40 


.09 


.8 


Steam Cylinders, Small 


1.9 


.55 


.08 


.6 


Gas Engine Cylinders 


1.8 


.50 


.07 


.7 


Locomotive Cylinders 


1.6 


.55 


.08 


.6 


Automobile Cylinders 


2.2 


.50 


.08 


.7 


Propeller Wheels 


1.4 


.30 


.09 


.8 


Bed Plates, Heavy 


1.9 


.55 


.08 


.6 


Dynamo Frames 

A • . 1 r 


2.5 

• 1 • 


.80 


.07 

■I 


.5 



Approximate rule for weighing pig iron in piles: 
If piled in the usual way 7!/4 cubic feet will weigh one 
ton. If very closely piled 7 cubic feet will weigh one ton. 



45 



THE INFLUENCE DIFFERENT ELEMENTS HAVE 
UPON THE IRON. 



Silicon. 

Silicon will soften the iron up to 3.50 per cent. When 
iron contains more it begins to get hard, short and brittle. 
Silicon increases fluidity, decreases shrinkage, open the grain 
of the iron and helps to turn combined carbon into graphite 
carbon, which helps to reduce the strength of the iron. In 
melting we lose about 0.2 per cent of silicon, which amount 
must be taken into account when figuring for silicon. 

Phosphorus. 

Phosphorus helps to make iron fluid and weak, so for 
all kinds of castings except the very thinnest, it should not 
be over 0.7 per cent. But for light, thin castings where 
strength is of no importance, it can run as high as 1 .0 or 
1 .25 per cent. In fact iron for stove plate and that line 
of work require that much. Phosphorous lowers the melting 
point of iron, and decreases the shrinkage. In melting it 
neither loses or gains very much. So no provision for loss 
or gain is required when making mixtures. 

Sulphur 

Sulphur if too high will make the iron hard. Increase 
the shrinkage and promote chill, and cause the iron to con- 
geal quickly. If very high it will cause blow holes, shrinkage 
cracks and dirty iron. In all machinery castings it should 
be kept below 0.9 per cent if possible. In melting it gains 
about 0.03 to 0.035 per cent, chiefly from the fuel. This gain 
must be taken into account when making mixtures. 

Manganese. 

Manganese is one of the best elements we have in iron. 
It is a regular scavenger. There is no element that will 
cleanse the iron, reduce the blow holes, reduce the sulphur, 

46 



increase the strength and improve the grain hke manganese. 
When siHcon is normal for the work being made, manganese 
from 0.5 to 0.8 per cent will be alright. In melting we lose 
from 0.10 to 0.15 per cent. 

Graphite Carbon. 

Graphite carbon is a softener. It opens the grain of 
the iron, makes it soft, weaker and reduces shrinkage and 
chill. 

Combined Carbon 

Combined carbon is a hardener. It closes the grain of 
the iron, increases the strength, shrinkage and chill. In melt- 
ing there is no gain or loss, only that one form will change 
to the other according to the rate of cooling, and influence 
of the other elements, especially silicon and manganese. In 
the common, soft foundry pig irons, combined carbon will run 
about 0.30 per cent to 0.50 per cent. Graphite carbon will 
run about 3.0 per cent to 3.5 per cent. But as the iron is 
made harder by mixing, the carbons will change. Graphite 
carbon getting lower in per cent and combined carbon in- 
creasing in percentage, according, of course, to the per cent 
of silicon put into the mixture. Graphite carbon will be 
high, when silicon is high, and combined carbon will increase 
as silicon is lowered. 

Approximate per cent of Silicon for Different Castings 

I have found castings containing the following percent- 
ages of silicon, were satisfactory, both in machining and use. 

For light castings from % to one-inch in section. From 
2.25 to 1 .9 per cent silicon. Castings from 1 inch 
to 2 inches in section. From 1 .9 to 1 .6 per 

cent silicon. Castings from 2 inches to 3 inches in 
section, from 1 .6 to 1 .3 per cent silicon. These figures are 
given to give the reader an idea how to regulate the silicon 
for castings of different section, and if the other elements 
are kept normal by selecting irons suitable for the class of 
work being made, will be entirely satisfactory for all kinds 

47 



of general machinery castings when figuring for sihcon only. 
For pulleys the silicon should range from 2.3 per cent to 2.6 
per cent, and the sulphur should be kept below 0.06 per 
cent if possible. For large Marine cylinders with brackets 
and flanges liable to crack through unequal sections, the 
silicon should run from 1.6 per cent to 1.8 per cent. Ihe 
castings of course, always have liners of much harder metal. 
Small and medium sized cylinders with no liners should run 
from 2.0 to 1.6 per cent silicon, with 10 to 15 per cent steel. 
For large gear wheels, blank or otherwise should contain, — 
after 20 to 25 per cent steel has been added, — about 1 .6 
per cent silicon. Car wheels, from 10-inch mining wheels, 
up to regular passenger car wheels, from 1 .5 to 0.70 per 
cent silicon. From 5 to 10 per cent steel scrap always helps 
the chill and strength of the wheels. All car wheels should 
be annealed as soon as possible after casting, by putting into 
a pit altogether. 

When selecting pig iron for small and medium castings, 
try and get iron containing less than 0.03 per cent sulphur, 
phosphorus about 0.7 per cent. Manganese about 0.6 per 
cent or 0.8 per cent, with graphite carbon about 3.25 per cent 
and combined carbon 0.25 per cent or under. In the castings 
the sulphur will average about 0.08 per cent. The other ele- 
ments will not vary very much. In the heavier castings the 
sulphur should not exceed 0.095%, phosphorus should be 
kept down from 0.4 to 0.5%, manganese about 0.8 to 0.9 
per cent. Graphite carbon will run from 2.50 per cent to 
2.75 and combined about 0.75 per cent. 

Judging the percentage of silicon in Different Kinds of Scrap. 

As a general rule light machinery scrap will contain 
about 1 .9 per cent to 2.25 per cent silicon. But sometimes 
we run across heavy scrap that runs that high in silicon. In 
that case, as a rule, the fracture will show a dark rough sur- 
face, full of shining particles of graphite, whereas the low 
silicon heavy scrap, will show a lightish, slightly rough frac- 
ture. 

AS 



Heavy scrap from 1^2 inches to 3 inches in section, will 
run from 1 .8 per cent to 1 .25 per cent siHcon. 

Standard car wheels — silicon 0.7 per cent, phosphorus 
not over 0.4 per cent, manganese 0.4 to 0.5 per cent, sulphur 
not over 0.17 per cent, graphite carbon from 2.5 to 2.9 per 
cent, combined carbon not over 0.90 per cent. 

Steel plate scrap contains silicon about 0.2 per cent, 
phosphorus from 0.01 to 0.05 per cent, sulphur form 0.03 
to 0.05 per cent, and manganese 0.5 per cent, with total 
carbon about 0.10 per cent. 

Stove plate scrap runs about 2.75 per cent silicon, phos- 
phorus about 1 .0 per cent. Although stove plate scrap is 
high in silicon, it is a quantity that cannot be depended 
upon, on account of its thin section, both the iron and the 
elements in it are burnt somewhat, especially so if melted 
under high blast. Use it with judgment. If light and 
heavy scrap are brought together, it will pay to sort, and 
give each its proper rating, which with a little experience 
can soon be learned. 

DECIMAL FRACTIONS 

In adding a few examples on decimal fractions and 
percentage, I thought would be an advantage to those who 
have allowed themselves to get rusty on decimals — to have 
under the same cover, — as a ready reference while working 
over the mixtures. 

Addition of Decimals 

The only respect in which addition of decimals differ 
from simple addition is, in placing the decimal point directly 
over one emother. Example: — 

26.346 
.263 



26.609 

49 



Substraction of Decimals 

Substract as in whole numbers, but keep the decimal 
points directly under each other, as in addition. Example: — 
80.312 

79.200 



1. 112 



32.3 
2.3 


969 
646 



Multiplication of Decimals 

Multiply as in whole numbers, and point off in the 
product as many decimal places as there are decimal places 
in the two factors, and if the product has not so many, 
supply the defect by writing ciphers on the left hand. 
Example: — 

1st— 2nd— 

.33 

.2 

.066 



74.29 

Note: In the first example there are three decimal 
places, so must make three decimal places in the product 
by adding one cipher to the left hand of it. 

Division of Decimals 

Divide as in simple numbers and point off as many 
decimal places in the quotient, as the number of decimal 
places in the dividend exceeds the number in the divisor. 
If necessary prefix ciphers to the quotient; or affix ciphers 
to the dividend. When both dividend and divisor contam 
the same number of decimal places, the quotient is a whole 
number, without or with a remainder as the case may be. 

50 



Example : 



No. 1 Divide 60 by 1.5. 




No. 2. Divide 34.75 by 2.5. 




Divisor Dividend 


Quotient 


1.5 ) 60.0 ( 


40 


600 




2.5)34.75(13.9 




25 




97 




75 




225 




225 





In the first example the divisor has one decimal place, 
but the dividend has none, so one must be affixed to it. 
As the dividend must have as many, if not more, decimal 
places as the divisor, with the added decimal place in the 
dividend makes the quotient a whole number. In the 
other example the dividend has one decimal place more than 
the divisor, so we point off one in the quotient. 

Example No. 3. Divide 30.5 by .9. 

Example No. 4. Divide 70 by II .2. 



.9)30.5(33-8/9 
27 


11.2)70.000(6.25 
672 


35 

27 


280 
224 


8 


560 
560 



In the 3rd example we find we could not bring it to 
an end, so to save carrying it on to several decimal places, 
we have finished with a vulgar fraction, and as the dividend 
has the same number of decimal places as the devisor, the 
quotient is a whole number, with the fraction 8/9. 

In the 4th example we had to add three more ciphers 

51 



to the dividend, giving it two more decimal places than the 
divisor, so we point off two decimal places in the quotient. 

Percentage 

Percentage is the process of calculating by the hun- 
dreths. Thus 5 per cent of a quantity is 5 of every hun- 
dred, or 5 hundredths of the quantity. When multiplying 
for a percentage of a certain number, the multiplier is ex- 
pressed decimally. That is, if we are to take 5%, 25% and 
12j/2% of a number, we would set them down to multiply 
like this: .05.25 and .125. The following table will show 
our meaning: 

PER CENT DECIMAL PER CENT DECIMAL PER CENT DECIMAL 



1% 


.01 


75% 


.75 1/2% 


.005 


2% 


.02 


100% 


1.00 3/4% 


.0075 


3.1% 


.031 


150% 


1.50 1/2% 


.015 


10% 


.10 


500% 


5.00 8/3% 


.O8K3 


50% 


.50 


!4% 


.0025 12/2% 


.125 



In the first place the base is the number on which the 
percentage is computed. 

Example: — Suppose we wish to take 6^ per cent of 
12.7 per cent. The 12.7 is the base, and the 6Y4 is the rate, 
so multiplying the base by the rate decimally expressed we 
get the percentage of .79375. 
, Example: — 

12.7 
.0625 



635 
254 
762 

.79375% 

> As explained in the multiplication of decimals, vye must 

point off as many places in the product as there are in the 

multiplier, and the multiplicant, which is five. It will be 

noticed that although we called 12.7 a per cent, it became 

52 



a base as soon as we wished to 


take 


a percentage 


it. Examples. 






2. Take 50% of 2.75%. 






3. Take 30% of 3.25%. 






4. Take 70% of 1.75%. 






2.75 3.25 




1.75 Base. 


50 .30 




.70 Rate 



from 



1.3750% .9750% 1.2250% Percentage 

when two numbers are given and we wish to know 

the rate of each one, we add the two together, and divide 

each number, — after affixing two ciphers and moving the 

points two places to the right, by the sum of the two. 

Example: — 

What per cent of 1.50 is .45 and 1.05? 

.45 
1.05 



1.50)45.00(30% 

4500 
1.50)105.00(70% 
10500 
When multiplying for percentage with decimals, we 
must always point off two extra in the result for the whole 
numbers. Example: Suppose we wish to take .5625 per 
cent of 80 per cent 80 

.005625 



You notice we have added two .450000 

ciphers, which represent the two whole numbers, and 
of course moves the decimal point two places to the left, 
so in pointing off the result, we count six decimal places. Of 
course in actual practice, we imagine the two whole numbers 
are there, and point off the result accordingly. 

Hoping these few suggestions will carry the point, we 
will not go any deeper on this subject. 

53 



CUPOLA PRACTICE 



Although it is not the purpose of this book to treat on 
cupola practice, I feel I could not conclude it without a 
word or two. We may make our mixtures as they should be 
made, still there is a possibility of them going wrong by im- 
proper handling and charging of the cupola. 

If every melter would take the trouble to find the 
proper height the coke bed should be for his particular 
cupola, then make all his charges of iron from first to last 
as near the same weight as possible, he will get a more uni- 
form grade and even flow of iron, with less coke consumption, 
than the man who crowds his coke bed to the limit with an 
extra heavy first charge of iron. The proper practice calls 
for the same weight of charge on the bed as every succeed- 
ing charge, and the weight of that charge is figured by the 
weight of coke it takes to fill four inches high in the cupola. 
Then use a ten to one ratio, that is if it takes 150 pounds of 
coke to fill four inches high in the cupola, the iron charges 
should be about 1500 pounds and so on. 

Experimenting foundry men have proved the melting 
zone averages from four to five inches in depth. And they 
have also found that amount of fairly good coke will melt 
10 times its weight in iron and when that amount of iron 
is melted, the bed is then ready for another four inch layer 
of coke. Now, when I speak of a four inch layer of coke, 
I do not mean that we must put four inches all over the 
inside area of the cupola. That rule is only used as a stan- 
dard on which to figure our iron charges. It has been 
proved that the best results have been derived by putting 
all the coke in the center, and all the iron as close to the 
lining as possible, excepting of course, when making different 
mixtures wh'ch must be separated by coke. Bv this method 
of charging, the coke can be reduced and still have hot iron 
if the bed and first charge have been started right. When 

54 



the bed is the right height it is only the top four inches 
that does the real melting, so if the bed is higher than it 
should be the extra coke will be burnt and wasted until 
it lets the iron down to the real melting zone, which will 
vary from. i5 to 28 inches above the tuyers according to 
high or low blast, so the main point is to find the proper 
height of the bed for every cupola, and the best way to find 
it is by the time it takes the iron to drop lively after the 
blast is on. If it takes more than three minutes at the most 
the bed is too high, and the extra time will be taken up 
burning coke that is not required. Now then, it is generally 
upon high coke beds that extra heavy first charges of iron 
are put, because we are under the impression that so much 
coke on the bed ought to melt a much heavier charge than 
the rest of the charges. But it is a wrong impression. An- 
other reason for heavy first charges are, that most foundries 
have some special mixtures to make, different from their 
regular run of work, and if they happen to be heavier than 
their regular charges, the bed is considered the best place, 
so as to get them down, and out of the way of the regular 
mixtures. But, as we must put an heavier split of coke between 
two different mixtures, the bed is built up somewhat, the 
amount it has lost by having an extra heavy first charge 
to melt, and I believe, that one reason of having to put 
an heavier split of coke between two different mixtures, have 
saved many a coke bed from getting dangerously low with- 
out the melter being aware of it. Now here's the point: We 
know, if we wish to retard the melting between two different 
mixtures, we must put an heavy split of coke between them. 
By so doing we keep the iron high above the melting Zone, 
until a part of the coke is burnt away, when the top part 
or last four inches of the coke wil drop to a point where it 
can melt the iron above it. 

It is just the same with the high coke bed. It is only 
the last, or top four inches that does the real melting, and 
like the heavy split of coke, even that four inches will not 
melt iron until it drops to the real melting zone, and then 
it will only melt so much, so if burdened with an extra heavy 

55 . 



first charge of iron, the bed proper is bound to suffer, and 
can only be built up again at the expense of irregular iron, 
and extra coke, which would not be, if all the charges had 
been made as near as possible what they should be, accord- 
ing to the size of the cupola. It is not very good cupola 
practice to let the iron soak too long in the cupola before 
starting the blast, as I believe the iron absorbs more or less 
sulphur from the fuel during that time. It is a fact, that 
"converter steel" men, if they have to make castings to 
strict specifications, will not use first charges for that class of 
work if they can help it. The reason, that sulphur always 
runs higher in first charges than in the following charges. 
Fairly good practice calls for the fire to be started about one 
hour before charging. As charging will take from three 
quarters to one hour, the blast should then be put on as 
soon as possible. If the bed is the right height, the iron 
will begin to drop within a minute or so, and will be droping 
quite fast within three minutes, as can be seen through 
tuyer glasses. 

Although I have mentioned that the melting zone will 
average about 20 inches above the tuyers, I do not mean 
that to be the height of the bed. We may have to make 
it 30 inches, or even more, because the bed will settle from 
8 to 12 inches as soon as the first charge of iron is dumped 
on it — that point will have to be settled by the time it takes 
the iron to begin to drop after the blast is put on, the melting 
zone being located entirely by the force of the blast. If 
the blast is high and strong, so will the melting zone be 
located high, so make the coke bed rather high at first then 
reduce till you find proper height by above instructions. 



56 



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